antibacterial In vitro testing has confirmed antibacterial effects in certain oils including rosemary, clove, lime, cinnamon, and tea tree oil.[7][8][9][10]
antiviral Supported for tea tree oil, lemongrass, sandlewood, peppermint, ginger, thyme, and hyssop in in vitro testing against Herpes[11][12][13][14][15]
antifungal Supported by in vitro testing for lavender, thyme, clove, juniper, and tea tree oil[16][17][18][19]
[20]
anti-inflammatory Reported in in-vitro assays of clove, cinnamon, sage, eucalyptus, black cumin and bay leaf[21]
[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] .
anxiolytic Reported in animal models using oils of lavender, rose and angelica [27][28][29]
antispasmotic
invigorating
antioxidant
[edit] Popular uses
Basil is used in perfumery for its clear, sweet and mildly spicy aroma. In aromatherapy, it is used for sharpening concentration, for its uplifting effect on depression, and to relieve headaches and migraines. Basil oil has many chemotypes and some are known to be emmenagogues and should be avoided during pregnancy.
Bergamot is one of the most popular oils in perfumery. It is an excellent insect repellent and may be helpful for both the urinary tract and for the digestive tract. It is useful for skin conditions linked to stress, such as cold sores and chicken pox, especially when combined with eucalyptus oil. Bergamot is a flavoring agent in Earl Grey tea. But cold-pressed Bergamot oil contains bergaptene, a strong photosensitizer when applied to the skin, so only distilled or 'bergaptene-free' types can be topically used.
Black pepper has a sharp and spicy aroma. Common uses include stimulating the circulation and for muscular aches and pains. Skin application is useful for bruises, since it stimulates the circulation.
Citronella oil, obtained from a relative of lemongrass, is used as an insect repellant and in perfumery.
Clove oil is a topical analgesic, especially useful in dentistry. It is also used an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, and antiemetic.
Eucalyptus oil is often used in combination with peppermint to provide relief for the airways in case of cold or flu.
Geranium oil is used as an astringent, antiseptic and diuretic.
Jasmine is used as an aphrodisiac
Lavender oil is used as an antiseptic, to soothe minor cuts and burns, to calm and relax, and to soothe headaches and migraines.
Lemon oil is uplifting and anti-stress/anti-depressant. In a Japanese study, lemon essential oil in vapour form has been found to reduce stress in mice.[30]
Rose is used as an aphrodisiac
Sandalwood oil is used as an aphrodisiac
Tea tree oil and many other essential oils have topical (external) antimicrobial (i.e. antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, or antiparasitic) activity and are used as antiseptics and disinfectants.[31]
Thyme oil[32]
Yarrow oil is used to reduce joint inflammation and relieve cold and influenza symptoms.
Ylang-ylang oil is used as an aphrodisiac
[edit] Criticism
The consensus among most medical professionals in the U.S.A. and England is that while pleasant scents can boost relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of the effectiveness of aromatherapy in general.[33] Scientific research on the cause and effect of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects and a few double blind studies have been published.[34][35]
Like many alternative therapies, few controlled, double-blind studies have been carried out—a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not patentable. Researchers at Sloan-Kettering have found that aromatherapy significantly reduces claustrophobia attacks for patients undergoing MRI scans[36]; however, studies of similar rigor are far from numerous. Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from the inherent properties of the scents themselves.
Skeptical literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the anecdotal evidence of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatherapy practitioners go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed.
Customers should be aware that aromatherapy may be unregulated, depending on the country. The term "aromatherapy" has been applied to such a wide range of products that many are labeled "aromatherapy" products simply because they contain essential oils, although they may provide no therapeutic benefit.
Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is no scientific evidence that healing can be achieved, and that the claimed "energies" even exist, many skeptics reject this form of aromatherapy as pseudoscience or even quackery.
[edit] Safety concerns
In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used neat. As such, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime [37]. Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.[38][39]
Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys. [40] A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic oestrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products". [41]
As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.
While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oil. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon has been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml.[42] A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar.[43] Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.
Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin.
Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.
[edit] References
^ Seenivasan Prabuseenivasan , Manickkam Jayakumar and Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu (2006). "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 (39). doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-39.
^ Kim HJ (Jun 2007). "Effect of Aromatherapy Massage on Abdominal Fat and Body Image in Post-menopausal Women." (in Korean). Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi 37 (4): 603-12. PMID 17615482.
^ Rho KH, Han SH, Kim KS, Lee MS. (Dec 2006). "Effects of aromatherapy massage on anxiety and self-esteem in korean elderly women: a pilot study". Int J Neurosci 116 (12): 1447-55. PMID 17145679.
^ Aromatherapy
^ http://www.florihana.com/en/aromatogram.htm The Aromatogram
^ http://www.pranarom.co.uk/en/essential_oil/aromatogramme Aromatogram
^ (April, 2007) "Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on microorganisms responsible for respiratory infections.". Phytother Res. 21 (4): 374-7. PMID: 17326042.
^ (Sept-Oct 2007) "Potential of rosemary oil to be used in drug-resistant infections.". Altern Ther Health Med. 13 (5): 54-9. PMID: 17900043.
^ (Nov 30, 2006) "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils.". BMC Complement Altern Med. 2006 Nov 30;6:39 6 (39). PMID: 17134518.
^ (2006 Jul-Sep) "Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil possesses potent anti-staphylococcal activity extended to strains resistant to antibiotics.". Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol.;19(3):. 19 (3): 539-44. PMID: 17026838.
^ (2007 May) "Susceptibility of drug-resistant clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 strains to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop, and sandalwood.". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 51 (5): 1859-62. PMID: 17353250.
^ (2003) "Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro.". Phytomedicine 10 (6-7): 504-10. PMID: 13678235.
^ (2003) "The inhibitory effect of essential oils on herpes simplex virus type-1 replication in vitro.". Microbiol Immunol. 47 (9): 681-4. PMID: 14584615.
^ (1999 May) "Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2.". Phytomedicine. 6 (2): 119-23. PMID: 10374251.
^ (2004 Nov) "Antiviral activity of the volatile oils of Melissa officinalis L. against Herpes simplex virus type-2.". Phytomedicine. 11 (7-8): 657-61. PMID: 15636181.
^ { (2007 Sep) "Antioxidant properties of the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata and its antifungal activity against a large number of clinical Candida species.". Mycoses. 50 (5): 403-6. PMID: 17714361.
^ (2006 Oct) "Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Thymus pulegioides on Candida, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species.". J Med Microbiol. 55 (Pt 10): 1367-73. PMID: 17005785.
^ (1996) "Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil) against pathogenic fungi in vitro.". Skin Pharmacol. 9 (6): 388-94. PMID: 9055360.
^ (2006 Jun) "Antifungal activity of Juniperus essential oils against dermatophyte, Aspergillus and Candida strains.". J Appl Microbiol. 100 (6): 1333-8. PMID: 16696681.
^ (2005 Aug) "Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form.". Med Mycol. 43 (5): 391-6. PMID: 16178366.
^ (2007 Jan-Mar) "Effects of Salvia officinalis L. extract on experimental acute inflammation.". Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 111 (1): 290-4. PMID: 17595884.
^ (2007 Jun) "The chemical composition and biological activity of clove essential oil, Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzigium aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): a short review.". Phytother Res. 21 (6): 501-6. PMID: 17380552.
^ (2003 Dec) "Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oils of Eucalyptus.". J Ethnopharmacol. 89 (2-3): 277-83. PMID: 14611892.
^ (2005 Sep 7) "Study on the antiinflammatory activity of essential oil from leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum.". J Agric Food Chem. 53 (18): 7274-8. PMID: 16131142.
^ (2004 Mar) "Black cumin seed essential oil, as a potent analgesic and antiinflammatory drug.". Phytother Res. 18 (3): 195-9. PMID: 15103664.
^ (2003 Aug) "Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis Linn.". Phytother Res.;(7): 17 (7): 733-6. PMID: 12916069.
^ (2007 Sep Epub 2007 May 4) "Anxiolytic effects of lavender oil inhalation on open-field behaviour in rats.". Phytomedicine 14 (9): 613-20. PMID: 17482442.
^ (2004 Feb) "Anxiolytic-like effects of rose oil inhalation on the elevated plus-maze test in rats.". Pharmacol Biochem Behav.;(): 77 (2): 361-4. PMID: 14751465.
^ (2004 Oct) "The effects of angelica essential oil in three murine tests of anxiety.". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 79 (2): 377-82. PMID: 15501315.
^ Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice.. PubMed.gov (2006-06-15). Retrieved on 2007-04-26.
^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16161028&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum][1] Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Australian native plants.
^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16690225&query_hl=14&itool=pubmed_docsum Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils.
^ http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/aromatherapy/HealthProfessional/page3 Aromatherapy and Essential Oils
^ Ballard CG, O'Brien JT, Reichelt K, Perry EK (2002). "Aromatherapy as a safe and effective treatment for the management of agitation in severe dementia: the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Melissa.". J Clin Psychiatry 63 (7): 553-8. PMID 12143909.
^ Holmes C, Hopkins V, Hensford C, MacLaughlin V, Wilkinson D, Rosenvinge H. (Apr 2002). "Lavender oil as a treatment for agitated behaviour in severe dementia: a placebo controlled study.". Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17 (4): 305-8.. PMID 11994882.
^ Aromatherapy Science: The Facts and Research on Scent - Associated Content
^ http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1312240 Hyperpigmented macules and streaks
^ http://www.thelavendercat.com/3201/index.html
^ K. Bischoff, F. Guale (1998). "Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in three purebred cats". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 10 (108). Retrieved on 2006-10-17.
^ (2007) "Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils". New England Journal of Medicine 356 (5): 479-85. PMID 17267908.
^ "Oils make male breasts develop", BBC News, February 1, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-09-09.
^ http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim031.htm#SectionTitle:7.2%20%20Toxicity
^ Millet Y, Jouglard J, Steinmetz MD, Tognetti P, Joanny P, Arditti J. (Dec 1981). "Toxicity of some essential plant oils. Clinical and experimental study.". Clin Toxicol. 18 (12): 1485-98. PMID 7333081.
[edit] Journals
Aromatherapy Journal
International Journal of Aromatherapy
Aroma Scents Journal
[edit] External links
The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy
International Federation of Aromatherapy
Essential oil and Aromatherapy (fr. with translator)
The History of Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy - a healing art
Aromatherapy: What Is It?
Aromatherapy and Essential Oil Cautions and Safety Information
What Does the Research Say About Essential Oils?
Antiviral and Antimicrobial Properties of Essential Oils
The Aromatherapy Global Online Research Archives
[edit] Criticism
Smell Research by Tim Jacob: Aromatherapy - does it work?
Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents
[edit] Further reading
Maria Lis-Balchin, Aromatherapy science - a guide for healthcare professionals, éd. Pharmaceutical Press (2006)
Kurt Schnaubelt, Ph.D., Advanced Aromatherapy : The Science of Essential Oil Therapy, (ISBN 0-89281-743-7)
Kurt Schnaubelt, Ph.D., Medical Aromatherapy : Healing With Essential Oils (ISBN 1-883319-69-2)
The Practice of Aromatherapy: A Classic Compendium of Plant Medicines and Their Healing Properties (ISBN 0-89281-398-9)
?, Food Chemicals Codex (ISBN 0-309-08866-6)
Christopher Wanjek, Bad Medicine : Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Distance Healing to Vitamin O, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (ISBN 0-471-43499-X)
Dr. Jean Valnet, The Practice of Aromatherapy (ISBN 0852071434)
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